Disaster Management

Module 1

Layers of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is divided into layers based on height and temperature changes.

1. Troposphere

• Lowest layer, extends up to about 11 km.
• Contains around 70% of the total air mass.
• All weather (clouds, rain, storms, fog) occurs here.
• Temperature decreases with altitude (lapse rate).
• Upper boundary: Tropopause – where temperature stops decreasing.

2. Stratosphere

• Lies above the troposphere, extends up to about 50 km.
• Contains the Ozone Layer, which absorbs harmful UV rays.
• Temperature increases with altitude due to ozone absorption.
• Clear, stable layer – jet aircraft fly here for smooth travel.
• Upper boundary: Stratopause.

3. Mesosphere

• Extends from about 50 km to 80 km.
• Very low air density.
• Burns up most meteors entering Earth's atmosphere.
• Temperature decreases with altitude.
• Upper boundary: Mesopause – the coldest part of the atmosphere.

4. Thermosphere

• Extends from about 80 km upward.
• Very high temperature (can reach 2000°C) due to solar radiation.
• Contains ionized gases (ions) – important for radio communication.
• Includes Ionosphere (E and F layers) which reflect radio waves.
• Upper part merges into the Exosphere / Magnetosphere.

Greenhouse Effect

1. Definition

• The Greenhouse Effect is a natural process that keeps the Earth's surface warm enough to support life.
• Without it, the Earth's average temperature would be about ( -18^\circ C ), making life impossible.

2. Mechanism (How It Works)

1. Sunlight In: The Sun's shortwave radiation passes through the atmosphere and warms the Earth's surface.
2. Heat Out: The Earth emits this absorbed energy as longwave infrared radiation.
3. Heat Trapped: Greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere absorb this outgoing heat.
4. Heat Re-radiated: These gases re-emit the heat in all directions, including back toward the surface — trapping warmth in the lower atmosphere.

3. Major Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)

4. Greenhouse Effect vs. Global Warming

Ozone Layer

1. Role and Location

• The Ozone Layer is a thin layer of ozone gas (O(_3)) found in the Stratosphere (about 10–50 km above Earth).
• It absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun, protecting living organisms from its damaging effects.

2. Ozone Depletion

• Definition: The thinning of the ozone layer due to the destruction of ozone molecules, leading to the formation of ozone holes.
• Chemical Process:
  • Human activities release Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) such as CFCs and halons.
  • In the stratosphere, UV rays break down these ODS, releasing chlorine and bromine atoms.
  • These atoms act as catalysts, breaking down ozone (O(_3)) into oxygen (O(_2)) — faster than it can be replaced.

3. Major Causes and Sources

• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): Main cause; used in refrigerators, air-conditioners, and aerosol sprays.
• Halons: Used in fire extinguishers.
• Nitrous Oxide (N(_2)O): Emitted from fertilizers, industries, and vehicles.
• Natural Causes: Minor effects from volcanic eruptions and sunspots.

4. Effects of Ozone Depletion

• On Humans: Causes skin cancer, sunburns, cataracts, and weakens the immune system.
• On Animals: Leads to eye and skin problems in terrestrial and marine animals.
• On Marine Life: Destroys plankton, disrupting the entire aquatic food chain.
• On Plants: Reduces photosynthesis, growth, and crop yield.

5. Solutions

• Montreal Protocol (1987): International treaty to phase out the use of CFCs and other ODS.
• Other Measures:
  • Use CFC-free or eco-friendly products.
  • Proper disposal of old refrigerators and air-conditioners.
  • Reduce vehicle emissions and fertilizer use.

Core Definitions

1. Hazard

   • A potential source of harm or a physical event that may cause loss of life, injury, or property damage.
   • Example: A cyclone forming in the sea or an earthquake-prone fault line.

2. Disaster

   • The actual event when a hazard impacts a vulnerable community, causing severe disruption and losses beyond their ability to cope.
   • Example: When a cyclone hits a coastal town and causes destruction.

3. Vulnerability

   • The factors or conditions that make a community or system susceptible to the effects of a hazard.
   • Examples: Poor housing, poverty, lack of awareness, weak infrastructure.

4. Exposure

   • The people, property, and systems located in hazard-prone areas that could be affected.
   • Example: Houses and people living on a floodplain are exposed to flooding.

5. Risk

   • The probability of loss or harm resulting from the interaction of a hazard with vulnerable and exposed elements.
   • Formula: Risk = Hazard × Vulnerability × Exposure

6. Capacity

   • The resources, strengths, and abilities available to manage and reduce disaster impacts.
   • Examples: Trained volunteers, emergency plans, early warning systems, strong infrastructure.
   • It is the opposite of vulnerability.

7. Resilience

   • The ability of a community to resist, absorb, and recover from disasters while maintaining essential functions.
   • Simply put — the ability to "bounce back" after a hazard event.

Classification of Rocks

Rocks are classified based on how they are formed into three main types — Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic.

1. Igneous Rocks

• Formation: Formed by the cooling and solidification of molten rock (magma or lava).
  • Magma: Cools slowly below Earth's surface → forms large crystals.
  • Lava: Cools quickly on the surface → forms small crystals.
• Key Features:
  • Hard, crystalline texture.
  • Called "primary rocks" — source material for other rock types.
• Examples:
  • Granite → from magma (slow cooling).
  • Basalt → from lava (fast cooling).

2. Sedimentary Rocks

• Formation: Formed by deposition, compaction, and cementation of sediments (from older rocks, plants, or animals).
• Key Features:
  • Usually found in layers (strata).
  • May contain fossils of plants or animals.
  • Generally softer than igneous or metamorphic rocks.
• Examples:
  • Sandstone → from sand grains.
  • Limestone → from marine organisms (shells, corals).
  • Shale → from compacted mud or clay.

3. Metamorphic Rocks

• Formation: Formed when existing igneous or sedimentary rocks are changed by heat, pressure, or chemical processes.
• Key Features:
  • Minerals rearranged → harder, denser rocks.
  • Often show foliation (banded or wavy appearance).
  • Known as "transformed rocks."
• Examples:
  • Marble ← from Limestone.
  • Slate ← from Shale.
  • Gneiss ← from Granite.

Comparison Table

Indian Monsoon

1. Definition

• A seasonal wind system that reverses direction between summer and winter.
• Blows towards land in summer (wet season) and away from land in winter (dry season).

2. South-West Monsoon (Summer Monsoon)

• Origin: From the Indian Ocean, south of the equator.
• Mechanism:
  • Winds cross the equator and are deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force, becoming south-west winds.
  • They travel over the ocean, gathering large amounts of moisture.
• As they approach India, they split into two branches — the Arabian Sea Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch.

Rainfall:

• The Western Ghats block the Arabian Sea branch, forcing the moist winds to rise and cool, leading to heavy rainfall on the western coast.
• The leeward side (rain shadow area) receives much less rain.

3. North-East Monsoon (Winter Monsoon)

• Origin: From the landmasses of northern and northeastern India.
• Mechanism:
  • During winter, the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) shifts southward.
  • This causes a reversal of wind direction, making them dry north-easterlies.
• Rainfall:
  • Generally dry over most of India since winds come from land.
  • When these winds pass over the Bay of Bengal, they pick up moisture and bring rainfall to Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
  • Cyclones often form over the Bay of Bengal during this period.

Layers of the Earth (Lithosphere)

1. Layers of the Earth (Concentric Zones)

The Earth is made up of four main layers arranged from the inside out:

1. Inner Core:

   • The innermost zone of the Earth.
   • A solid mass of iron due to immense pressure.

2. Outer Core:

   • Surrounds the inner core.
   • A molten (liquid) layer composed mainly of nickel and iron.

3. Mantle:

   • Lies above the outer core.
   • About 2,900 km thick and made of solid rock that flows slowly.

4. Crust:

   • The outermost, solid layer of the Earth.
   • Thickness varies from 5 km (under oceans) to 50 km (under continents).

2. The Lithosphere (Composition & Features)

• Definition: The Lithosphere is the rigid outer shell of the Earth, consisting of the Crust and the uppermost solid part of the Mantle.
• Characteristics:
  • It is divided into tectonic plates that float on the softer asthenosphere below.
  • Responsible for geological processes such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain formation.

3. Types of Lithosphere

1. Oceanic Lithosphere:

   • Found under the oceans.
   • Thin — about 5 to 8 km thick.
   • Composition: Mainly basalt, a dense volcanic rock.

2. Continental Lithosphere:

   • Found under the continents.
   • Thicker — about 30 to 40 km thick.
   • Composition: Made of granitic rocks, less dense than basalt.

Cyclones

Definition

• A cyclone is a large area of low atmospheric pressure where air moves in a spiral or rotating pattern.
• Rotation Direction:
  • Anti-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere.
  • Clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
• Cause: Caused by the Coriolis effect, which deflects moving air due to Earth's rotation.
• Energy Source: Warm ocean water in tropical regions provides the main energy that fuels cyclones.

Types of Cyclones

1. Tropical Cyclones

   • Origin: Form over warm ocean waters near the equator.
   • Features: Known by different names in different regions:
     • Cyclones → Indian Ocean
     • Hurricanes → Atlantic & Northeast Pacific
     • Typhoons → Northwest Pacific
   • Characteristic: Bring heavy rainfall, strong winds, and storm surges.

2. Polar Cyclones

   • Origin: Occur in polar regions such as Greenland, Siberia, and Antarctica.
   • Features:
     • Large low-pressure systems (1,000–2,000 km wide).
     • Generally stronger during winter.
     • Much colder and less moisture-laden than tropical cyclones.

3. Mesocyclones

   • Origin: A rotating region of air within a severe thunderstorm.
   • Features:
     • Smaller in size (2–10 miles in diameter).
     • May develop into tornadoes if the rotation intensifies.

Module 2

Hazard Mapping

1. Definition and Objectives

• Definition: A hazard map highlights areas affected by or vulnerable to a particular hazard such as earthquakes, floods, volcanoes, landslides, or tsunamis.
• It shows the location, magnitude, and timing (duration/speed of onset) of a hazard on a 2D or 3D surface.
• Purpose: To compile hazard-related information in one map to help reduce loss of life and property.
• Objectives:
  1. Make people aware of possible hazards.
  2. Help disaster managers and planners prepare and respond effectively.

2. Data and Information Collection

Data Needed:

• Spatial characteristics: Location, distribution, and area affected.
• Temporal characteristics: Duration and speed of onset.
• Magnitude: Intensity or strength of the hazard.

Data Sources:

1. Base Maps: Provide topographic layers such as roads, elevation, and rivers.
2. Satellite/Remote Sensing Images: Provide quick, up-to-date hazard information.
3. Field Data: Collected on-site using GPS, Total Station, or Laser Scanners.

Other Methods:

• Field visits and aerial surveys.
• Consultation with local officials and communities.
• Checking availability of past hazard data.

3. Approaches to Hazard Mapping

A. GIS (Geographic Information System) Mapping

• GIS is widely used for hazard mapping because it can manage large volumes of spatial data.
• It helps visualize hazards in 3D and supports data analysis, manipulation, and presentation.

Steps in GIS-based Hazard Mapping:

1. Identify hazards and collect data.
2. Analyze frequency of occurrence.
3. Process and store data in a GIS database.
4. Analyze and generate hazard layers.
5. Produce and finalize the hazard map for publication.

B. Participatory Mapping

• Involves local communities in identifying and mapping hazard-prone areas.
• Encourages inclusion of local knowledge and experiences.

Steps:

1. Goal Setting: Define the purpose and scope of mapping.
2. Preparation: Scout the area and prepare survey tools.
3. Implementation: Conduct mapping exercises, discussions, and presentations with community members.

Objectives:

• Identify local hazards and assets.
• Collect evidence and observations.
• Present and interpret findings for local planning.

4. Applications of Hazard Maps

1. Spatial Planning: Used in town and regional planning to restrict development in hazard zones.
2. Risk Reduction: Helps design protective structures (e.g., flood barriers, retaining walls).
3. Emergency Planning: Identifies high-risk zones and assists in evacuation and relief planning.
4. Awareness: Educates communities about risks and safety measures.

5. Cartographic Representation

• Base Map: Must include landmarks, rivers, and roads for easy orientation.
• Scale:
  • Small-scale maps: Cover large areas with less detail (used for regional plans).
  • Large-scale maps: Show small areas with more detail (used for local planning).
• Symbols: Represent hazards and their extent visually:
  • Point symbols: Volcanoes or epicenters.
  • Line symbols: Fault lines or river paths.
  • Area symbols: Flood zones, landslide areas, etc.

Vulnerability

Definition

• Vulnerability refers to the characteristics and circumstances of an individual, community, or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.
• It explains why a hazard becomes a disaster for certain groups.
• Vulnerable populations often include the poor, women, children, and the disabled.
• Factors influencing vulnerability: poor infrastructure, low awareness, and weak risk management.

Four Main Types of Vulnerability

1. Physical Vulnerability

• Determined by population density, remoteness, site conditions, and building materials or design.
• Includes potential human impacts like injuries or deaths.
• Example: Wooden houses withstand earthquakes better but are highly vulnerable to fire.
• Key Elements:
  • Buildings: Location, design, and materials.
  • Infrastructure: Roads, bridges, water, sewage, and power systems.
  • Critical Facilities: Hospitals, emergency services, and communication networks.

2. Social Vulnerability

• Refers to the inability of people and societies to withstand disaster impacts due to social conditions.
• Linked to community well-being: education, literacy, peace, access to rights, and social equity.
• Example: Elderly people and children are more affected during floods.
• Special Groups: Single-parent families, pregnant women, physically/mentally challenged, children, and the elderly.

3. Economic Vulnerability

• Depends on the economic strength of individuals or nations.
• Poor people are more vulnerable as they cannot afford safe housing or mitigation measures.
• Example: Slum dwellers in flood-prone areas face greater risks.
• Loss Types:
  • Direct Losses: Damage to buildings, crops, infrastructure.
  • Indirect Losses: Loss of income, production, or employment.

4. Environmental Vulnerability

• Caused by natural resource depletion and environmental degradation.
• Human activities like deforestation weaken ecosystems, increasing disaster risk.
• Example: Deforested hill slopes become prone to landslides.

Vulnerability Assessment

• Process of quantifying the degree of susceptibility or loss of an element at risk.
• Essential part of risk assessment.

Data Required:

1. Historical Data: Past hazard events and damage levels.
2. Socio-economic Data: Education, income, water, shelter, access to credit.
3. Exposure Data: Elements (buildings, people, etc.) exposed to hazards.
4. Policy Data: Institutional capacity and risk management policies.

Assessment Varies By:

• Type of vulnerability (physical, social, etc.)
• Scale (individual, community, regional)
• Hazard type (flood, earthquake, etc.)

Methods of Representing Vulnerability

1. Vulnerability Indices

• Numerical indicators (0–1 scale) showing relative levels of vulnerability.
• Commonly used for social, economic, and environmental vulnerability.

2. Vulnerability Tables

• Simple tables showing the relationship between hazard intensity and degree of damage.

3. Vulnerability Curves

• Graphs showing correlation between hazard intensity and damage.
• Relative Curves: Damage as a percentage of total property value.
• Absolute Curves: Shows total monetary loss.
• Fragility Curves: Probability of exceeding certain damage states (e.g., moderate, severe, collapse).

Disaster Risk Assessment

Definition

• Disaster risk assessment is the process used to determine the nature and extent of disaster risk.
• It is a key component of disaster risk reduction strategies, helping identify which areas, people, or systems are at greatest risk.

The Two Main Components

1. Risk Analysis

• A technical process using available data to estimate the potential risk to people, property, and the environment.
• Steps Involved:
  1. Hazard identification
  2. Hazard assessment
  3. Identification of elements at risk (exposure)
  4. Vulnerability assessment
  5. Risk estimation

2. Risk Evaluation

• A judgmental or social process that determines the importance and acceptability of the identified risks.
• Purpose: To weigh the potential social, environmental, and economic consequences.
• Goal: To help choose the most effective methods to manage or reduce risk.

Contemporary Approaches to Risk Assessment

Modern assessments consider multiple dimensions to give a holistic view of risk.

1. Multi-hazard:

   • Recognizes that one area can face different types of hazards (e.g., floods, earthquakes, landslides).
   • Each hazard type has different characteristics and impacts.

2. Multi-sectoral:

   • Understands that disasters affect different sectors such as housing, agriculture, health, and infrastructure.

3. Multi-level:

   • Risk is assessed at different administrative scales — national, regional, district, and local levels.
   • Helps align policies and disaster management strategies across levels.

4. Multi-stakeholder:

   • Involves all relevant groups — government bodies, private sector, NGOs, communities, and individuals.

5. Multi-phase:

   • Considers all phases of the disaster cycle — mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery.

Methods of Expressing Risk

1. Qualitative Methods

• Uses descriptive terms like high, medium, or low to indicate risk levels.
• Applied when numerical data is unavailable or insufficient.
• Tool Used: Risk Matrix — shows probability vs. potential impact visually.

2. Quantitative Methods

• Expresses risk in numerical terms using statistical or probabilistic models.
• Calculates potential losses in terms of money, life, or property.
• Formula: Risk = Hazard × Vulnerability × Elements-at-risk

3. Semi-Quantitative Methods

• Represents risk using indices or scores (0–1 scale) — shows relative rather than absolute risk.
• When Used:
  • For initial screening to identify high-risk zones.
  • When data is limited or time does not allow full quantitative study.
• Formula: Risk = (Hazard × Vulnerability) / Capacity

Module 3

Disaster Mitigation Measures

Definition & Objectives

• Mitigation means lessening or limiting the adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters.
• It focuses on preventing hazards from becoming disasters by reducing exposure and vulnerability.

Objectives:

1. Hazard Likelihood Reduction: Reduce the chance of a hazard occurring (possible only for some hazards, e.g., constructing sea walls to reduce floods).
2. Risk Consequence Reduction: Reduce the impact of hazards by minimizing exposure and vulnerability.
3. Primary Aim: Reduce death and injury.
4. Secondary Aim: Reduce damage and economic losses to infrastructure and property.

Types of Mitigation Measures

1. Structural Mitigation Measures

• Definition: Physical constructions or engineering measures designed to reduce or avoid hazard impacts.
• Purpose: To build or modify structures to withstand hazard forces.
• Examples:
  • Sea defense walls
  • Dams and levees to control floods
  • Earthquake-resistant buildings
  • Retrofitting old buildings
  • Avalanche barriers

2. Non-Structural Mitigation Measures

• Definition: Policies, laws, awareness programs, and management practices that reduce disaster risks without involving physical construction.
• Purpose: To strengthen institutional, social, and community resilience.
• Examples:
  • Policies & Legislation: Building codes, land-use zoning, disaster management acts
  • Public Awareness: Education campaigns, drills, hazard maps
  • Knowledge Development: Research, training programs
  • Community Participation: Involving local people in planning and preparedness

Disaster Response

Definition and Objectives

• Definition: Disaster response refers to the actions taken during or immediately after a disaster to save lives and protect property.
• Objectives:
  • Provide immediate assistance to maintain life, improve health, and support morale.
  • Meet the basic needs of the affected population until permanent solutions are established.
• Rationale for Response:
  • Limit casualties.
  • Alleviate hardship and suffering.
  • Restore essential life support and community systems.
  • Prevent further damage and loss.

Types of Disaster Responses (Key Actions)

1. Search and Rescue (SAR): Locating endangered persons, rescuing them, providing initial treatment, and transporting them to healthcare facilities.

2. First Aid and Emergency Medical Care:

   • First Aid: Immediate care by trained non-experts until professionals arrive.
   • Emergency Medical Care: Paramedic attention and rapid transport to hospitals.

3. Evacuation: Organized movement of people from danger zones to safer areas.

   • Types:
     • Precautionary: Before the disaster.
     • Protective: After the disaster.

4. Relief Delivery: Providing essentials such as food, water, clothing, and temporary shelter to meet immediate survival needs.

5. Psychosocial Support: Helping victims cope with trauma, stress, and loss; preventing long-term mental health issues.

6. Immediate Repair of Community Facilities: Clearing debris, stabilizing unsafe structures, and restoring basic services like electricity and water.

7. Public Health Services: Managing casualties, ensuring sanitation, clean water, handling the deceased, and preventing disease outbreaks.

Influencing Factors

1. Type of Disaster: Determines urgency and type of response (e.g., flood vs. earthquake).
2. Severity and Magnitude: Larger disasters require broader coordination and resources.
3. Capability for Sustained Operations: Depends on available resources, management capacity, and community resilience.
4. Ability to Take Pre-Impact Actions: Early warning systems and preparedness measures help reduce disaster impact and shape response activities.

Core Elements of Disaster Risk Management (DRM)

Definition

Disaster Risk Management (DRM) is a systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations, and operational skills to reduce the adverse impacts of hazards and minimize the possibility of disasters.

Core Elements

1. Risk Identification and Assessment:

   • Determining and analyzing the potential, origin, characteristics, and behavior of hazards.
   • Evaluating factors such as frequency of occurrence and possible consequences.

2. Mitigation (Risk Reduction Measures):

   • Planning and implementing measures to reduce disaster risks.
   • Includes structural measures (like dams, flood barriers, sea walls).
   • Includes non-structural measures (like disaster laws, land-use planning, awareness programs).

3. Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management:

   • Activities carried out before a disaster to ensure an effective response.
   • Examples:
     • Early warning systems.
     • Evacuation and emergency planning.
     • Stocking emergency supplies like food, water, and power backups.

4. Recovery and Reconstruction:

   • Actions taken after a disaster to restore normal living conditions.
   • Focuses on rebuilding infrastructure, providing rehabilitation, and improving resilience for the future.

Disaster Relief

Definition

Disaster Relief refers to the assistance or intervention provided during or immediately after a disaster. Its main purpose is to meet life preservation and basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter, and medical care for affected people. Relief operations may be immediate, short-term, or long-term, depending on the severity of the disaster.

Principles of Relief

Relief activities are guided by the following key principles:

1. Aid is provided based on need alone, without discrimination of race, creed, or nationality.
2. Relief aid should not be used for political or religious purposes.
3. Culture and local customs must be respected in relief activities.
4. Relief should build on local capacities and resources.
5. Beneficiaries should be involved in the management and distribution of aid.
6. Relief efforts should aim to reduce future vulnerabilities while meeting current needs.

International Relief Organizations

Common organizations involved in global disaster relief include:

• International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
• International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)
• Doctors Without Borders (Médecins Sans Frontières)
• CARE International
• Caritas Internationalis
• Action Against Hunger (AAH)
• Catholic Relief Services (CRS)
• International Organisation for Migration (IOM)
• International Rescue Committee (IRC)
• Mercy Corps (MC)

Disaster Preparedness

Definition

Disaster Preparedness refers to the knowledge and capacities developed by governments, organizations, communities, and individuals to anticipate, respond to, and recover from the effects of potential hazard events.
It ensures that people and systems are ready to act effectively when disasters occur.

Components of a Preparedness Strategy

A comprehensive preparedness strategy includes:

1. Hazard, risk, and vulnerability assessments
2. Response mechanisms and strategies
3. Preparedness plans
4. Coordination among organizations and agencies
5. Information management systems
6. Early warning systems
7. Resource mobilization
8. Public education, training, and rehearsal exercises

Types of Disaster Preparedness

1. Target-Oriented Preparedness: Focuses on specific vulnerable groups such as women, children, the elderly, and people with disabilities.
2. Task-Oriented Preparedness: Involves preparing specific groups or teams to perform assigned tasks and evaluate their capability during emergencies.
3. Disaster-Oriented Preparedness: Focuses on preparedness for a specific type of disaster (like floods or cyclones) using both structural and non-structural methods.

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

Definition: SOPs are standard, predefined procedures that put disaster response or contingency plans into action.
They specify what should be done, how it should be done, who is responsible, and what resources are available.

SOPs During Disaster Stage:

• Alert communities in likely disaster zones.
• Safeguard key transport routes and prepare relief and medical teams.
• Arrange rapid transport and evacuation of affected people to safe shelters.
• Operate relief camps and supervisory centers at designated shelters.
• Ensure smooth coordination and disciplined execution of instructions from relevant authorities.

Module 4

Participatory Stakeholder Engagement

Definition

• Stakeholder Participation refers to the involvement of interest groups such as local communities, government authorities, businesses, and civil society organizations in planning or decision-making processes.
• In an operational context, it means that people with a common interest (stakeholders) influence and share control over development initiatives, decisions, and resources that affect them.
• Participatory Development is a process in which people are proactively and significantly involved in all decisions that affect their lives.

Identifying Stakeholders (Three Basic Forms)

1. Primary Stakeholders

   • These are the beneficiaries of a project or those directly affected by it (positively or negatively).
   • Includes local populations, individuals, and community-based organizations — especially poor and marginalized groups.
   • Examples (DRR context): Homeowners, renters, small-scale business owners, or homeless persons.

2. Secondary Stakeholders

   • Those who influence or are indirectly affected by a project.
   • Includes government bodies, implementing agencies, local authorities, private firms, and NGOs.

3. Key Stakeholders

   • Groups or individuals who can significantly influence a project or are critical to its success, often due to power or financial capacity.
   • Examples: National Disaster Management Organizations (NADMO), donors, and key ministries.

Benefits and Costs of Stakeholder Participation

Benefits (Advantages)

• Improved Project Design: Utilizes local knowledge and ensures plans meet real community needs.
• Strengthened Ownership: Increases community commitment and willingness to share costs.
• Enhanced Sustainability: Projects are more likely to endure due to local ownership.
• Conflict Resolution: Early identification and management of potential disputes.
• Capacity Building: Empowers local groups to analyze problems and initiate solutions.
• Equitable Benefits: Promotes fair distribution of project benefits.

Costs and Risks (Drawbacks)

• Higher Initial Costs: Requires time, resources, and coordination.
• Lack of Political Will: Governments may resist broad participation fearing loss of control.
• Exclusion of Vulnerable Groups: Marginalized communities may remain unheard.
• Token Participation: Superficial involvement without genuine influence.
• Elite Capture: Dominance by powerful groups, excluding weaker voices.
• Potential Conflicts: Can intensify disagreements between stakeholders with differing goals.

Effective Ways to Promote Stakeholder Participation

Special efforts must be made to address power imbalances and ensure inclusion of marginalized groups.

1. Capacity Building:

   • Provide training, funding, and resources to help vulnerable groups organize and express their interests.

2. Mandated Representation:

   • Set inclusion targets (e.g., ensuring women and minority representation in all committees).

3. Separate Consultations:

   • Conduct specific meetings for distinct groups (like women-only sessions) to hear their concerns openly.

4. Levelling Techniques:

   • Use skilled facilitators and participatory tools to ensure equal opportunity for all participants.

5. Use of Intermediaries:

   • Employ representatives (e.g., female extension workers) to communicate the views of groups that cannot participate directly.

Disaster Communication

Importance of Communication

Effective communication is a fundamental part of disaster management. It plays a key role in every phase of the disaster cycle by:

• Promoting preparedness for disasters.
• Providing early warning signals of impending disasters.
• Facilitating a proper and coordinated response during emergencies.
• Connecting affected people, families, and communities with first responders and support systems.

Steps to Effective Communication

Effective communication helps deliver critical information clearly and calmly, even in difficult situations.
The key steps include:

1. Use Standard Terminologies – Use clear, standardized terms for key concepts such as risk, disaster, coping, resilience, and vulnerability.
2. Ensure Clarity – Messages should be direct, simple, and unambiguous.
3. Request and Provide Clarifications – Encourage feedback and questions from beneficiaries; communicators should also be well-informed.
4. Inform About Changes – Notify all relevant individuals or teams when the plan or mission changes.
5. Communicate Externally – Share all essential information with other teams and external agencies.
6. Use Non-Verbal Communication – Be aware of and use body language, gestures, and tone effectively to support verbal messages.

Barriers to Effective Communication

Common problems that hinder effective communication include:

• Lack of Focus: Failure to pay attention or stay on topic.
• Interruptions: Showing disinterest or cutting off others while they speak.
• Being Judgmental: Ignoring or dismissing feedback.
• Ignoring Non-Verbal Cues: Overlooking gestures, tone, or expressions.
• Individual Differences: Failing to consider cultural, linguistic, or emotional differences.
• Unmanaged Stress: Letting stress, anxiety, or overreaction affect communication clarity.

Risk Communication vs. Crisis Communication

Crisis Counselling

Definition: Crisis vs. Regular Counselling

1. Crisis A crisis is how an individual reacts to a stressful life experience that affects their emotional stability and ability to cope or function effectively.

2. Regular Counselling Regular counselling is a personal, face-to-face process where a counsellor helps a person gain self-understanding and deal with current or future problems.

• The goal is to help a normal person know themselves better and develop the ability to solve future problems and meet future needs.

3. Crisis Counselling Crisis counselling occurs when a person who is destabilized or unable to cope seeks immediate professional help.

• It requires urgent attention to prevent further emotional or behavioral breakdown.
• The aim is rapid relief of distressing symptoms and restoration of normal functioning.
• It also helps the person learn crisis-solving techniques for the future.

Key Difference in Goals

Characteristics of an Effective Crisis Counsellor

1. Self-Awareness

   • The counsellor has good self-knowledge and can empathize with clients without becoming emotionally involved.

2. Non-Judgemental Attitude

   • The counsellor listens fully and accepts the client's feelings and experiences without criticism or bias.

3. Non-Reactive Nature

   • The counsellor remains calm and composed during a client's emotional outbursts or threats, providing steady support.

4. High Tolerance Level

   • They can remain patient and composed even in highly tense or stressful situations.

5. Specialized Training

   • Crisis counsellors possess specific skills and techniques that differ from normal counselling, focused on immediate psychological stabilization.

Capacity Building

Definition

Capacity Building is a continuous process that equips officials, organizations, and communities to perform their functions more effectively during crises or disasters. It focuses on improving skills, systems, and resources to enhance disaster preparedness and resilience.

Key Components

1. Training and Awareness:

   • Includes training programs, workshops, curriculum development, mock drills, and large-scale public awareness campaigns.
   • Helps individuals and institutions understand risks and respond efficiently.

2. Governance:

   • Strengthening institutional capability at local, state, and national levels.
   • Focuses on enforcing disaster mitigation measures and ensuring accountability.

3. Responsiveness:

   • Enhancing Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) governance to make systems more responsive, adaptable, and proactive in managing risks.

Structural vs. Non-Structural Measures

Capacity-building actions can be classified into Structural and Non-Structural measures.

1. Structural Measures

   • Definition: Physical constructions designed to reduce or avoid hazard impacts.
   • Includes: Application of engineering techniques for hazard-resistance and resilience.
   • Examples: Dams, flood barriers, cyclone shelters, earthquake-resistant buildings, retrofitting old structures.

2. Non-Structural Measures

   • Definition: Measures that do not involve physical construction but focus on knowledge, policies, and community participation.
   • Includes: Laws, regulations, public awareness, training, and education.
   • Examples: Building codes, land-use zoning, insurance schemes, and early warning systems.

Module 5

National Disaster Management Policy (NDMP)

Vision

To build a safe and disaster-resilient India through a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster-oriented, and technology-driven approach that promotes a culture of prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and response.

Definition of Disaster Management

Disaster Management (DM) is a continuous and integrated process involving the planning, organization, coordination, and implementation of measures necessary for:

• Prevention of danger or threat of any disaster.
• Mitigation or reduction of risks.
• Capacity building and preparedness.
• Prompt and effective response.
• Assessment of the severity and impact of disasters.
• Evacuation, rescue, and relief operations.
• Rehabilitation and reconstruction of affected areas.

Objectives of the National Policy

1. Promote a culture of prevention and preparedness through knowledge, innovation, and education.
2. Encourage mitigation measures using technology, traditional wisdom, and environmentally sustainable practices.
3. Mainstream disaster management into development planning and governance.
4. Establish institutional and techno-legal frameworks for effective regulation and coordination.
5. Ensure risk identification, assessment, and monitoring mechanisms at all levels.
6. Develop forecasting and early warning systems with reliable and fail-safe communication networks.
7. Provide efficient response and relief measures, especially for vulnerable populations.
8. Use post-disaster reconstruction as an opportunity to build disaster-resilient structures and communities.
9. Foster collaboration with media and stakeholders to promote awareness and timely communication.

Disaster Management Act, 2005 (Legislation & Institutional Framework)

About the Act

• The Disaster Management Act, 2005 provides the legal and institutional framework for disaster management in India.
• It extends to the whole of India and ensures a coordinated approach to prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery.

Key Definitions

• Disaster: A catastrophe or grave occurrence (natural or man-made) that is beyond the coping capacity of the affected community.
• Disaster Management: A continuous and integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinating, and implementing measures for prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, and rehabilitation.
• Mitigation: Measures aimed at reducing risks, impacts, or effects of a disaster.
• Preparedness: The state of readiness to effectively deal with a potential disaster and its consequences.

Institutional Structure (Three-Tier System)

1. National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

   • Chairperson: Prime Minister of India.
   • Members: Up to nine members nominated by the Chairperson.
   • Functions:
     • Lays down policies, plans, and guidelines for disaster management.
     • Approves the National Plan for disaster management.
     • Issues guidelines for State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs).
     • Oversees coordination at the national level for effective disaster response.

2. National Executive Committee (NEC)

   • Functions as the executive arm of the NDMA.
   • Assists NDMA in implementing policies and ensuring coordination among ministries and agencies.

3. State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)

   • Chairperson: Chief Minister of the respective State.
   • Functions:
     • Prepares and approves the State Disaster Management Plan.
     • Coordinates disaster management activities across state departments.

4. District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)

   • Chairperson: District Collector / District Magistrate.
   • Functions:
     • Implements disaster management policies and plans at the district level.
     • Coordinates response and relief operations within the district.

Other Key Bodies

• NDRF (National Disaster Response Force): Specialized force constituted for disaster response and rescue operations.
• NIDM (National Institute of Disaster Management): Responsible for training, research, and capacity building in disaster management.
• The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) acts as the nodal ministry for overall coordination of disaster management activities at the central level.

Common Disaster Types in India

Overview

• The High Power Committee on Disaster Management identified 31 types of disasters in India.
• Tsunami was added to this list in 2005, after the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.

Categories of Disasters

1. Water and Climate Related Disasters

   • Floods and drainage management
   • Cyclones
   • Heat waves and Cold waves
   • Droughts
   • Tsunami
   • Snow avalanches

2. Geological Related Disasters

   • Landslides and mudflows
   • Earthquakes
   • Dam failure or dam bursts

3. Chemical, Industrial & Nuclear Related Disasters

   • Chemical and industrial accidents
   • Nuclear accidents

4. Accident Related Disasters

   • Forest fires
   • Urban fires
   • Major building collapses
   • Serial bomb blasts
   • Air, road, and rail accidents

5. Biological Related Disasters

   • Epidemics and biological disasters
   • Pest attacks
   • Cattle epidemics
   • Food poisoning

Major Disasters Common in India

India is particularly vulnerable to the following major disaster types:

• Droughts – Common in arid and semi-arid regions; affect agriculture and water supply.
• Floods – Frequent during monsoon season, especially in the Indo-Gangetic plains.
• Cyclones – Affect coastal areas of the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
• Earthquakes – High seismic risk zones in the Himalayas and northeastern India.
• Landslides – Common in hilly regions like the Himalayas and Western Ghats.
• Tsunamis – Coastal states are at risk, especially along the eastern coast.